关于科学的定义（2-1）

Question

Logical Positivism/Empiricism (Peter and Olson 1983)

1. Science discovers the true nature of reality.

2.Only the logic of justification is needed to understand science.

3.Science can be understood without considering cultural, social, political, and economic factors.

4.Science is objective.

5.Scientific knowledge is absolute and cumulative.

6.Science is capable of discovering universal laws that govern the external world
7. Science produces theories that come closer and closer to absolute truth.

8.Science is rational since it follows formal rules of logic.

9.There are scientific rules for doing science validly {e.g., falsification).

10.Scientists subject their theories to potential falsification through rigorous empirical testing.

IT. Measurement procedures do not influence what is measured.

12. Data provide objective, independent benchmarks for testing theories.

Modern Empiricism (Hunt 1984)

There is a real world and, although science attempts to discover the nature of reality, the "true" nature of reality can never be
known with certainty.

It is useful to distinguish between the procedures that science uses to discover its knowledge-claims from those that science uses to accept or reject (justify) its knowledge-claims. The academic discipline of philosophy of science historically focused on issues in justification.

The procedures that science uses to justify its knowledge-claims should be independent of cultural, social, political, and economic factors.

Although complete objectivity is impossible, science is more objective in justifying its knowledge-claims than nonsciences, e.g. medical science is more objective than palmistry.

Scientific knowledge is never absolute. Much of scientific knowledge is cumulative, i.e., we really do know more about the causes of infectious diseases today than we did 100 years ago.

Science attempts to discover regularities among the phenomena in the real world. Some of these regularities are stated in universal form and others are stated in probabilistic form.

Much of scientific knowledge is cumulative. Absolute truth is not knowable by science.

Science is rational since its purpose is to increase our understanding of the world. It does so through developing theories, models, lawlike generalizations, and hypotheses which purport to describe, explain, and predict phenomena,

There are norms for doing good science. For example, theories should be testable, measures should exhibit reliability and validity, and data should not be fabricated or otherwise fraudulently collected.

Theories are subjected to the empirical testing process.

Absolute perfection in measurement procedures is impossible.

The empirical testing process provides good grounds for accepting some knowledge-claims and rejecting others.

Answer 1

Logical Positivism/Empiricism (Peter and Olson 1983)
逻辑实证主义/实证论

1. Science discovers the true nature of reality.
科学揭示现实本质。
2.Only the logic of justification is needed to understand science.
只有懂得辩证逻辑学，才能理解科学。
3.Science can be understood without considering cultural, social, political, and economic factors.
理解科学时，不需要加入文化、社会、政治以及经济色彩。
4.Science is objective.
科学是客观的。
5.Scientific knowledge is absolute and cumulative.
科学知识是长时间积累而成的，不受任何限制。
6.Science is capable of discovering universal laws that govern the external world
科学能够揭示客观世界的普遍规律。
7. Science produces theories that come closer and closer to absolute truth.
科学提出诸多理论，一步一步走向真理。
8.Science is rational since it follows formal rules of logic.
科学是理性的，因为它遵循逻辑形式规则。
9.There are scientific rules for doing science validly {e.g., falsification).
有具体的规则来证明科学的正确性，比如作假等。
10.Scientists subject their theories to potential falsification through rigorous empirical testing.
科学家们通过反复严格实验去伪存真。
IT. Measurement procedures do not influence what is measured.
测试过程并不会改变被测试的东西。
12. Data provide objective, independent benchmarks for testing theories.
数据为理论测试提供了客观、独立的基准。

Modern Empiricism (Hunt 1984)
现代经验主义

There is a real world and, although science attempts to discover the nature of reality, the "true" nature of reality can never be known with certainty.
世界是真实存在的。虽然科学试图揭示现实的本质，但肯定无法触及最本质的部分。
It is useful to distinguish between the procedures that science uses to discover its knowledge-claims from those that science uses to accept or reject (justify) its knowledge-claims. The academic discipline of philosophy of science historically focused on issues in justification.
把科学揭示知识的步骤方法与科学赞同或反驳（辩证）知识的步骤方法去分开是非常有用的。从历史观点来看，科学哲学学科着重在辩证。
The procedures that science uses to justify its knowledge-claims should be independent of cultural, social, political, and economic factors.
科学用以辩证知识的步骤无关于文化、社会、政治以及经济因素。
Although complete objectivity is impossible, science is more objective in justifying its knowledge-claims than nonsciences, e.g. medical science is more objective than palmistry.
虽然绝对的客观是不可能的，但科学在辩证科学知识方面比非科学学科更加客观。比如，医学科学就比相手术更加客观。
Scientific knowledge is never absolute. Much of scientific knowledge is cumulative, i.e., we really do know more about the causes of infectious diseases today than we did 100 years ago.
科学知识不可能是绝对的。很多科学知识都是通常很长时间沉淀下来的。例如，我们对传染病引发原因的了解就比100年前多多了。
Science attempts to discover regularities among the phenomena in the real world. Some of these regularities are stated in universal form and others are stated in probabilistic form.
科学试图从真实世界的一些现象中找出一定规律。而一些规律普遍存在，而另一些则是偶然出现。
Much of scientific knowledge is cumulative. Absolute truth is not knowable by science.
许多科学知识都是积累而来。科学揭示的也不可能是绝对的事实。
Science is rational since its purpose is to increase our understanding of the world. It does so through developing theories, models, lawlike generalizations, and hypotheses which purport to describe, explain, and predict phenomena,
科学是理性的，它的目的在于增加对世界的认知。因此，提出了科学理论、模式、似法律概论以及假设来描述、解释、以及预测现象。
There are norms for doing good science. For example, theories should be testable, measures should exhibit reliability and validity, and data should not be fabricated or otherwise fraudulently collected.
研究科学是有规范准则的。如，理论应该接受检验，检验的方法应该具有可靠性和准确性。数据不能随意捏造或收集时含有作假行为。
Theories are subjected to the empirical testing process.
理论应该进行实验检测。
Absolute perfection in measurement procedures is impossible.
检测过程中无法做到完美无暇。
The empirical testing process provides good grounds for accepting some knowledge-claims and rejecting others.
实验检测过程为肯定或否定一些知识主张提供了良好的基础。